(I) Introduction
(Based on Theorem 1 of Section 6.1 for \( \mathbb{R}^n \))
Definition
An inner product on a vector space \( V \) is a function that, to each pair of vectors \( \vec{u} \) and \( \vec{v} \) in \( V \), associates a real number \( \langle\vec{u}, \vec{v}\rangle \) and satisfies the following axioms for all \( \vec{u}, \vec{v}, \vec{w} \) in \( V \) and all scalars \( c \):
- \( \langle\vec{u}, \vec{v}\rangle = \langle\vec{v}, \vec{u}\rangle \)
- \( \langle c\vec{u}, \vec{v}\rangle = c\langle\vec{u}, \vec{v}\rangle \)
- \( \langle\vec{u} + \vec{v}, \vec{w}\rangle = \langle\vec{u}, \vec{w}\rangle + \langle\vec{v}, \vec{w}\rangle \)
- \( \langle\vec{u}, \vec{u}\rangle \ge 0 \), and \( \langle\vec{u}, \vec{u}\rangle = 0 \) if and only if \( \vec{u} = \vec{0} \)
A vector space with an inner product is called an inner product space.
Standard Definitions Extended to \( V \):
- Length: \( ||\vec{v}|| = \sqrt{\langle\vec{v}, \vec{v}\rangle} \)
- Distance between \( \vec{u} \) and \( \vec{v} \): \( ||\vec{u} - \vec{v}|| \)
- Unit Vector: A vector whose length is 1.
- Orthogonal: \( \vec{u} \) and \( \vec{v} \) are orthogonal if \( \langle\vec{u}, \vec{v}\rangle = 0 \).
Note: \( \mathbb{R}^n \) with the standard inner product (dot product) is an inner product space.
(1) Let \( t_0, \dots, t_n \) be distinct real numbers, and let \( p \) and \( q \) be in \( \mathbb{P}_n \). Define:
Show that it defines an inner product on \( \mathbb{P}_n \).
Proof: We check the axioms for \( \langle p, q \rangle \).
For Axiom (1):
For Axiom (4):
And \( \langle p, p \rangle = 0 \) if and only if \( p(t_0) = p(t_1) = \dots = p(t_n) = 0 \). Because \( p \) is a polynomial of degree at most \( n \) with \( n+1 \) roots, it must be the zero polynomial (\( p \equiv 0 \)). (Axioms 2 and 3 are skipped as they are straightforward to verify).
(2) In \( \mathbb{P}_2 \), define the inner product by evaluation at \( 0, \frac{1}{2}, \) and \( 1 \). Compute \( ||p|| \) and \( \langle p, q \rangle \) for \( p(t) = 12t^2 \) and \( q(t) = 2t - 1 \).
Solution: We evaluate the polynomials at the given points.
| \( t \) | \( 0 \) | \( 1/2 \) | \( 1 \) |
|---|---|---|---|
| \( p(t) = 12t^2 \) | \( 0 \) | \( 3 \) | \( 12 \) |
| \( q(t) = 2t - 1 \) | \( -1 \) | \( 0 \) | \( 1 \) |
(II) The Gram-Schmidt Process
Let \( V \) be \( \mathbb{P}_4 \) with the inner product involving evaluation of polynomials at \( -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 \). View \( \mathbb{P}_2 \) as a subspace of \( V \). Produce an orthogonal basis for \( \mathbb{P}_2 \) by applying the Gram-Schmidt process to the standard basis \( \{1, t, t^2\} \).
Solution: Evaluate the polynomials at \( -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 \).
| Polynomial | \( -2 \) | \( -1 \) | \( 0 \) | \( 1 \) | \( 2 \) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| \( 1 \) | \( 1 \) | \( 1 \) | \( 1 \) | \( 1 \) | \( 1 \) |
| \( t \) | \( -2 \) | \( -1 \) | \( 0 \) | \( 1 \) | \( 2 \) |
| \( t^2 \) | \( 4 \) | \( 1 \) | \( 0 \) | \( 1 \) | \( 4 \) |
Let \( p_0 = 1 \) and \( p_1 = t \). Check if they are orthogonal:
Yes, \( 1 \) and \( t \) are orthogonal.
Now, apply Gram-Schmidt to find \( p_2 \):
Calculating the inner products:
The set \( \{1, t, t^2 - 2\} \) is an orthogonal basis.
(2) Find the best approximation to \( p(t) = 5 - \frac{1}{2}t^4 \) by \( p_0, p_1, \) and \( p_2 \).
Recall: The best approximation to \( p \) by functions in \( W \) is \( \text{Proj}_W p \).
Evaluate \( p_2 \) and \( p \) at the points to prepare for calculation:
| Polynomial | \( -2 \) | \( -1 \) | \( 0 \) | \( 1 \) | \( 2 \) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| \( p_2 = t^2 - 2 \) | \( 2 \) | \( -1 \) | \( -2 \) | \( -1 \) | \( 2 \) |
| \( p = 5 - \frac{1}{2}t^4 \) | \( -3 \) | \( 9/2 \) | \( 5 \) | \( 9/2 \) | \( -3 \) |
Compute the necessary inner products:
Now, calculate the projection \( \hat{p} \):
(III) Two Inequalities
Theorem 16 (The Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality)
For all \( \vec{u} \) and \( \vec{v} \) in \( V \):
Proof:
① For \( \vec{u} = \vec{0} \), both sides equal \( 0 \).
② For \( \vec{u} \neq \vec{0} \), consider the projection of \( \vec{v} \) onto \( \vec{u} \):
In a right triangle, the length of a leg is less than or equal to the hypotenuse. Thus, \( ||\text{Proj}_{\vec{u}}\vec{v}|| \le ||\vec{v}|| \). Substituting the expression gives:
Theorem 17 (The Triangle Inequality)
For all \( \vec{u} \) and \( \vec{v} \) in \( V \):
(IV) An Inner Product for \( C[a, b] \)
For functions \( f \) and \( g \) in the space of continuous functions \( C[a, b] \), set:
It can be shown that this defines an inner product on \( C[a, b] \).
Let \( W \) be the subspace of \( C[0, 1] \) spanned by the polynomials \( p_1(t) = 1 \), \( p_2(t) = 2t - 1 \), and \( p_3(t) = 12t^2 \). Use the Gram-Schmidt process to find an orthogonal basis for \( W \).
Solution:
Let \( q_1 = p_1 = 1 \).
Calculate \( q_2 \):
Since \( \langle p_2, p_1 \rangle = 0 \), \( p_1 \) and \( p_2 \) are already orthogonal. Thus, \( q_2 = p_2 = 2t - 1 \).
Calculate \( q_3 \):
Compute the required inner products:
Now assemble \( q_3 \):
The set \( \{1, 2t - 1, 12t^2 - 12t + 2\} \) is an orthogonal basis for \( W \).